Animals that produce levels of noise having the potential to cause stress should be housed separately. The duration of female receptivity was defined as only that time when Copulatory Locks occurred. It is acceptable to give the mother extra veggies, fruit, or juice in a shallow bowl on the day she delivers. Remove or separate the sire (this may mean shifting the sire to an adjacent cage or moving him out to a different area entirely). Separation between food and water, urination and defecation, and resting areas should be maximized. WebWhen the Maned Wolf SSP was formed in 1985, one of the first goals was to produce husbandry guidelines for managing the species in captivity. Males and females are listed according to the 27 March 2002 pairings. Webbush dog husbandry guidelines designrs hub. Water in birth cages should be provided in a small, shallow water bowl on a shelf above the nest box with just enough water to cover the bottom but not enough for infants to drown. LightingLighting may be both natural and/or artificial, and should be uniformly distributed throughout animal facilities, of sufficient intensity to permit good observation of animals, provide a photoperiod control appropriate to the species, and contribute to a safe working environment for personnel. They primarily move through their environment by quadrupedal movement (19.8%), leaping (54.1 %), hopping (2.9%) and climbing (16.8%) (Crompton 1983). Aye-aye Pod: The Official Podcast of the DLC, Overview: Madagascar Conservation Programs. The current standard diet for G.Moholi at the DLC: 5 grams of low glycemic vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, celery, cherry tomatoes, carrots, red cabbage, cucumbers, lettuce, collards, kale, spinach, chard). They are often associated with the Acacia Trees grown in this region which provide an important dietary staple. File Name: bush stone-curlew husbandry manual.pdf Size: 3996 KB Type: PDF, ePub, eBook Category: Book Uploaded: 22 May Similarly, the nest box should only be removed from the cage if something is obviously wrong such as the presence of blood in the nest or a dead infant. Correlations associated with male or female presence.For within-female correlations, correlation of fecal estrogen and vulva index was significant both with a male present (Kendall tau, P = 0.0517; Mantel, P < 0.0001) and absent (Kendall tau, P < 0.0001; Mantel, P = 0.0036). Branch the cage simply and include two nest sites, both at eye level height. Split the diet in 2 portions with the first portion fed at 12 PM just before lights out and the second fed as late in the day as possible. 2002). 1998; Strahl et al. Fecal progestins were measured using the Progesterone Active DSL-3900 (Diagnostic System Laboratories; Lukas et al. 2004), and bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis; approximately 9N-11S and 15S-35S; equatorial-tropical-subtropicalSillero-Zubiri et al. Baby watch should begin approximately one week before the estimated due date. Medications and treatments must only be administered under the advice of or in accordance with written protocols provided by a veterinarian, and all drugs must be dispensed in accordance with federal and state regulations. Antelope Husbandry Manual: Alcelaphinae [Hartebeests and wildebeests], Lance Aubery, Randy RiechesPublished August 2001, Antelope Husbandry Manual: Reduncinae [Waterbucks and reedbucks], Gloria Kendall, Randy RiechesPublished May 1999, Antelope Husbandry Manual: Cephalophinae [Duikers], Gloria Kendall, Randy RiechesPublished January 2000, Duiker Husbandry GuidelinesFrom 2002 Bay, Black, and Red-flanked Duiker Studbook, Red-flanked duiker Husbandry Best Practices, EAZA Best Practice Guidelines for Lesser Kudu, Ian Goodwin, Jiri Hruby, Friederike von Houwald, Ulrike Rademacher, Beatrice Steck, Fabia WyssPublished 2018, Terry DeRosa, Fran Lyon, and Ann PetricPublished September 2004, EAZA Best Practice Guidelines for Burmese Brow-Antlered Deer, Dr. Matt Hartley and Ellis WallPublished 2018, EAZA Best Practice Guidelines for Tufted Deer, Janno Weerman & Wiene van de BuntePublished 2020, Martha Fischer and Steve ShurterPublished 2001, EAZA Best Practice Guidelines for Babirusa, Tim Rowlands, Amy Treanor. In captivity, this species is most often housed with related female pairs, breeding pairs or dams and their offspring. Frequent changes to the group should be avoided. NoiseActivities that create noise with the potential to cause stress should be minimized and conducted away from animal housing. It is possible that because female bush dogs are not restricted to a fixed, single breeding season and have multiple cycles per year; male bush dogs may have continuous testosterone and sperm production as do male domestic dogs and dingoes (Canis lupus dingo) in temperate regions in Australia (Catling et al. Nest boxes and various enrichment items (e.g., logs, bark chips, and dog toys) were never moved between the 4 enclosures. Because bush dogs are known to reproduce over a wide geographic range (approximately 11N27SEisenberg and Redford 1999; Macdonald 1995; Sillero-Zubiri et al. We thank R. Dmoch (Intemational Studbook Keeper and European Endangered Species Programme Coordinator for bush dogs), S. Silber and K. Lenahan from the Infertility Center of St. Louis, T. Bettinger, G. Camilo, W. Jchle, the World Conservation Union Canid Specialist Group, and the respondents to the Speothos venaticus Distribution and Status Questionnaire for their critical assistance and advice on many aspects of the project. This shift may have resulted from an increase in vulvar rubbing and subsequent swelling due to the higher frequency of urine marking in females when a male was present (Porton 1983) and may explain the previous observed differences with peripubertal females. WebEAZA Hornbill Management and Husbandry Guidelines Contents Foreword 1) Natural history 2) Captive population management 2.1 Identification 2.2 Morphology and sex determination 2.3 Maturation and longevity 2.4 European hornbill collection plan taxa 3) Veterinary care, handling and transport Unlike other canids, the presence of a male was associated with shortened interestrous intervals and increased number of estrous cycles. Activity starts right around sunset and ends around dawn with the most active periods are right after dark and directly preceding dawn (Molez 1976; Doyle & Bearder 1977). Two nest boxes are provided, including nest material (paper towel strips, paper strips, fleece squares, bamboo, mimosa or pine boughs). Extraction and assay of fecal hormones.Fecal steroids were made soluble in a modified phosphate-buffered saline containing 50% methanol, 0.1% bovine serum albumin, and 5% Tween 20 (polyoxy-ethylene sorbitan monolaurate, a surfactantBauman and Hardin 1998; DeMatteo 2004; Shindeler et al. Darwin cage cards 3.2. Finally, Porton et al. Nail clippers 3.4. Birth cages should be made of the small x inch vinyl coated wire. The within-individuals factor was nested, which allowed for increased power in the main treatment effect contrast. The facility should be cleaned in order of animal susceptibility to disease and potential risk to the general population, starting with the most susceptible animals and ending with those who carry the highest risk of transmitting infectious disease. After a 121-to-124 day gestation period, females give birth to offspring weighing approximately 10 grams that have their eyes open and are furred. All research protocols were performed in a humane manner (Animal Care and Use Committee 1998) and approved by the Saint Louis Zoo Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. 1). US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Riverdale, Maryland 20737. Procedures must be established for providing animal care during emergencies. WebHusbandry Regulated procedures Housing Small, stable groups should be formed. If recirculating systems or other energy-recovery devices are used, these systems must be adequately maintained. Females often give birth to a single offspring at their first pregnancy, then produce twins in subsequent litters. Gum can be spread on branches, sticks, wood, coconut shells, paper, cardboard, etc. Although the pattems of change in fecal estrogens and vulva index indicated that male presence was not needed to initiate an estrous cycle, the sustained fecal progestin elevation after an increase in fecal estrogens in the female demonstrated that the presence of a male also was not required for ovulation. The following are general guidelines for the proper care and humane treatment of animals in nonagricultural facilities, such as humane societies, municipal animal control agencies, pet stores, boarding kennels, dog training establishments, grooming facilities, dealers, and veterinary hospitals and clinics. Although no significant change was found for Fl (P = 0.2), this is believed to be a result of insufficient data, that is, a single, incomplete estrous cycle in the 2nd phase of the study, and not a result of her medical condition. 1987; Velloso et al. Increase the dam's diet by 50% on the day infants are discovered (or suspected). To minimize measuring error, each dimension was measured twice and averaged. Animals must be observed and cared for by qualified personnel every day. Appropriate training for personnel should be provided. When a breeding pair has been introduced it is important to check the female for cycling on a regular basis. (1987) that appeared to have sequential estrous cycles without intervening anestrous phases and with luteal phases shorter than gestation and so not considered pseudopregnancies. The first section is an index of Mammal Taxonomic Orders. The most common housing arrangement at the DLC has been related female groups. (1987) reported that captive, peripubertal females, but not mature, parous females, underwent multiple, sequential estrous cycles without intervening anestrous phases, referred to as polyestrous cycles (Anderson and Simpson 1973). 1987). Here's where your voice is most needed right now. Rough surfaces or uncoated wire flooring in primary enclosures should be avoided because they can lead to foot and skin trauma. The cycles of peripubertal females, with possible induced estrus and short, poly estrous cycles, may simply represent the transition to the fully functional adult pattern. Thus, cycles of adult females housed alone or with a male show spontaneous estrus and an obligate pseudopregnancy after infertile ovulations and more closely resemble the typical canid cycle. 44 0 obj <> endobj Federation of Animal Science Societies, 1111 N Dunlap Avenue, Savoy, Illinois 61874. XI. Do not touch the nest box or disturb the dam. Identification numbers, including intemational studbook number (Dmoch 2004), for the 8 adult bush dogs used in this study. The following taxon-specific documents are a valuable resource in the husbandry and care of ungulates. In general, bushbabies are small, woolly, long-tailed primates with mobile, oversized naked ears (Kingdon 2004). capturing this data will give you the best estimation of a due date. Although it cannot be determined conclusively whether either of these medical conditions affected reproduction, the fact that both of these cycles had fecal progestin levels indicative of ovulation suggest that the females were not affected until their conditions were well advanced. Split the diet in 2 portions with the first portion fed at 12 PM just before lights out and the second fed as late in the day as possible. Open-ended vasectomy.Between late December 2001 and mid-January 2002, open-ended vasectomies were performed on the 4 males (see DeMatteo et al., in press). In addition, data from only 3 of the 4 pairs during the 2nd phase were included in the analysis; Fl and Ml were excluded because of insufficient data due to death of Fl. 1993; Kleiman 1968; Monfort et al. Training sessions remain the most stimulating enrichment for bushbabies. A sampling frequency of 2 times per week was adequate for detecting pattems in male fecal androgen levels (Fig. These extended periods of baseline fecal progestins are consistent with what would be considered anestrous periods. Pseudopregnancy.Although the duration of fecal progestin elevation in female bush dogs differed significantly depending on whether a male was present or absent, both approximated the length of bush dog gestation (X = 67 days, range = 6270 daysDmoch 19992000) and so support the hypothesis that the female bush dog has an obligate pseudopregnancy independent of male presence. The current analysis of data from captive bush dogs was important when interpreting the results from the Speothos venaticus Survey, because the analysis showed the importance of considering the number of females and births represented at each latitude, because a small sample size may inaccurately suggest seasonal reproduction. A summary of the dates of sightings of infants, juveniles, and subadults permitted estimates of age and date of birth, thus providing information on bush dog seasonality in the wild. Bode, Z. Tang-Martinez, and T. Valone. We do not know if this is a characteristic restricted to peripubertal females. WebThere are a number of pieces of legislationand codes of practice which deal with thehusbandry and care of dogs (see Appendix 1).Although the various guidelines all %PDF-1.5 % Low scores (unformed, loose, diarrhea, etc) may indicate digestive upset, malabsorption, and/or possible hydration issues. Fecal hormones, vulvar measurements, and mating behavior were used to characterize reproductive cycle dynamics. WebK.E. There was an increase in the mean number of peaks for both fecal progestins and vulva index during the time a male was present compared to when he was absent (fecal progestins = 1.52 peaks, n = 3; and vulva index = 11.7 peaks, n = 3). Chris Pfefferkorn Published March 2002 . Mixed species have been successful when a compatible individual of the same species isn't available. They are vertical clingers and leapers. Bush babies are also characterized by the long upper portion of Vasectomy was followed by monthly semen collection by electro-ejaculation to deplete the vas deferens of sperm before the male-female introductions in late March 2002 (see DeMatteo et al., in press). None were significant only when the male was present. Confirmed plus possible Copulatory Locks (n = 5 estrous cycles) occurred an average 2.5 times per day for a period of receptivity that averaged 6 days. WebPreface. WebQuartier Adjak, vons Clinique Centrale d'Abomey-Calavi; remplacer margelle piscine bois +229 21 60 25 28; jbl flip 4 ne s'allume plus mais charge +229 69 48 51 13; vito rizzuto children contact@educpartenaires.com 2002). WebHusbandry Guidelines for The Common Wombat Vombatus ursinus Mammalia: Vombatidae Compiled by Kylie Elliott 2008 Western Sydney Tasmanian devils and wild 1.2 The Code is based on the knowledge and technology available at the time of publication and may need to They have large, orange, fixed eyes and posses the largest ears, proportionally to body size, of all primates. In addition, the interestrous interval, that is, that time between successive 1st significant increases in fecal progestins, varied significantly (t = 2.498, d.f = 9, P < 0.05) depending on whether a male was present (X = 136 days, SD = 11 days, = 4) or absent (X = 179 days, SD = 40.1 days, n = 5). First, nonparametric measures of association (SAS Institute Inc. 1996) were used to determine whether there were correlations among the 3 female variables associated with male presence. There were no significant betweensex correlations found for the male and female variables. An emergency medical plan must be in place to provide appropriate and timely veterinary medical care for any animal who is injured, in distress, or showing signs of illness. A. Creel S. R.. Pelletier F. Bauman J. Festa-Bianchet M.. Shindeler S. E. Ortuo A. M. Morn F. M. Moorman E. A. Lasley B. L.. Sillero-Zubiri C Hoffmann M. Macdonald D. W.. Silveira L. A. Jacomo A. T. A. Rodrigues F. H. G. Diniz-filho J. This study was the Ph.D. dissertation of KED, who was supported by Saint Louis University Biology Teaching and Research Assistantships, a Claire-Booth Luce Fellowship, and a Saint Louis University Dissertation Fellowship. 1992; Tate 1931) have occurred during the day and night, in both open grasslands and dense forest (Barnett et al. A Mount was clearly distinguishable from a Copulatory Lock by the ability of the pair to move away from each other. 2). The male Mounted the female on an average of 42 days (range = 289 days, n = 7 estrous cycles). The most common housing arrangement at the DLC has been related female groups. 1998. Worms and or crickets can presented in slow feeders, hanging feeders, paper cups, bags or bowls. Birth cages should be made of the small x inch vinyl coated wire. Remember, teaching your dog these simple handling skills is setting her up to win for future vet exams. hVo0W=N8Rm&j:CF=ZN 2YJ#DpBX|G!QAAGXC$|" .i@$#\{W/:6@_Pr7z"7Eo+G8RiYcm8wUxToB(fk+NnmG\DTxNKS]j'pI,*Ix\>CQ0aJ'*^?4>[mE$Y:YYlJmK(WIfY.bp|i2`^ L.-4Htm7N*:_)}*'iYeRx@|Kj 3+jdrR %O(ZC-xozFQ s5RJE;Nix70(r}F`O^o@n;B This flexibility has been seen in few other canids (Table 1), but all are more tropical in distribution, including the fennec fox (Vulpes zerda; approximately 14N34N; tropical-subtropicalSillero-Zubiri et al. Other primary considerations include. Food must be available in amounts sufficient to provide for normal growth, and maintenance of normal body weight, reproduction, and lactation. Increase the dam's diet by 50% on the day infants are discovered (or suspected). The Moholi bushbaby is native to the mesic woodlands of the Southern Afrotropics. Your participation makes AVMA a stronger advocate for our profession. It is during the white light phase that we do our cleaning. CleaningAll equipment and areas must be cleaned with appropriate detergents and disinfectants as often as needed to keep them sanitary and free of debris and harmful contaminants. Although female bush dogs urine mark at a higher frequency than males (Kleiman 1972; Macdonald 1996; Porton 1983), individuals of both sexes demonstrate a higher urine-marking frequency when exposed to opposite- versus same-sex urine (Porton 1983). Leaps can cover significant distances, up to and sometimes greater than 2.5 m (8.2 ft) (Charles-Dominique 1977a; Butynski & de Jong 2004). Louis, Department of Biology, One University Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA, Karen E. DeMatteo, Ingrid J. Porton, Devra G. Kleiman, Cheryl S. Asa, The Effect of the Male Bush Dog (Speothos venaticus) on the Female Reproductive Cycle, Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 87, Issue 4, 24 August 2006, Pages 723732, https://doi.org/10.1644/05-MAMM-A-342R1.1. Dams are usually first weighed at ~ 3 weeks post-partum. Waste disposalWaste must be removed regularly and frequently, and in compliance with all federal, state, and local laws and regulations. Individual animals should be identified in a consistent and recordable manner (e.g., tags, cage cards, microchips, tattoos). Study design.The study was divided into 2 phases. Previous observations of peripubertal females housed with sisters or with 1 or both parents may have failed to show ex-temal signs of hormonal changes in the absence of stimuli from a novel male because of a lower female urine-marking frequency. Present address of KED: University of MissouriSt. These findings indicate that mature female bush dogs differ from peripubertal females studied by Porton et al. Annual Report, Magazines, and Newsletters, "Southern lesser bush baby, South African galago Galago moholi", 2009, Blue-eyed Black Lemur Husbandry Guidelines, Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur Husbandry Guidelines. 1987). Sharp edges and broken wires must be eliminated, floors must be kept in good condition, and deteriorating equipment must be refurbished or replaced. The intra-assay coefficient of variation was 6.5%, and the interassay coefficients of variation for 4 separate internal controls were 6.4%, 7.2%, 6.7%, and 5.9%. This is in contrast to males of species in which females have restricted breeding seasons and male reproductive parameters vary seasonally, with testosterone and sperm production declining or ceasing outside of the reproductive season (Asa and Valdespino 1998). The following are general guidelines for the proper care and humane treatment of animals in nonagricultural facilities, such as humane societies, municipal animal control 2004), artificial lighting was not needed to extend the natural day length at any time during the study. Visually check the cage and any loose nest material on the cage floor for a stranded or injured infant. Vulvar measurements.A significant increase was found in baseline vulva index (P < 0.001) in 3 of the 4 females (F2, F3, and F4) when the male was present. Twice-weekly sampling (Tuesdays and Saturdays) of feces was used to monitor fecal androgen levels in the males. We also utilize different enrichment techniques and tools to encourage natural feeding behaviors. The intra-assay coefficient of variation was 4.7%, and the interassay coefficients of variation for 3 separate internal controls were 4.6%, 4.3%, and 5.5%. Bush dogs may also be housed in familygroups; in the wild , they are thought to live in groups in the wild.Although in the wild juveniles may remain with the family Differences dependent on male or female presence.For females, there was a strong positive effect of male presence on fecal estrogens, fecal progestins, and vulva index (repeated-measures ANOVA, P < 0.0001). 150-250 grams with males being the heaviest. Conservation Status of Least Concern with stable population size. The 2nd estrous cycle without a confirmed Copulatory Lock (F1) had 4 possible Copulatory Locks and one of the highest number of Mounts (n = 329). WebWork in packs with cooperative hunting behavior Involves an intense chase Pack members begin eating prey before it stops moving Generally disembowels prey will still chasing it Anything from small antelope to a buffalo size Size of prey depends on number of animals hunting Regurgitation for younger and geriatric animals To increase the power of the test and prevent detecting false correlations, the Mantel tests were corrected with the sequential Bonferroni technique (Rice 1989; as modified in Legendre and Legendre 1998). WebLesser Bush Baby Husbandry Guidelines Follow Us Introductory Text If youd like to add an intro, add your text here. The mature bush dog also has been reported to have the ability to reproduce a 2nd time within a year if a litter is lost or removed from the mother (Kleiman 1968; Porton et al. Ferret bags, hammocks, buckets, and other small nocturnal sleeping spots are offered and removed to be washed on a weekly basis. Training Guide, National Animal Control Association, PO Box 480851, Kansas City, Missouri 64148. As described for all other canids, female bush dogs have an obligate pseudopregnancy after an infertile mating or ovulation without mating. ` = An individual record should be prepared for each animal. Caging, runs and pens must be kept in good repair to prevent injury, maintain physical comfort, and facilitate sanitation and servicing. F1 developed metastatic cancer in the spleen, and required euthanasia on 18 July 2002. Mating behavior.During the 2nd phase of the study, mating behavior of each male-female pair was recorded with continuous time-lapse videotaping using infrared lighting at night (Legendre et al. Feeding and watering devices should be easily accessible for filling, changing, cleaning, and servicing. Additional data are needed to evaluate seasonality in the male. = 15, P < 0.05) depending on whether the male was present (X = 74 days, SD = 7.9, n = 9) or absent (X = 65 days, SD = 8, n = 8). 1993). and subadults were made from 7 countries in South America. . on June 1, 2022. gladius profiles shadowlands; camra decathlon chasse; 1998. fAsa et al. A program of preventive and emergency medicine must be established by and supervised by a veterinarian. Females construct nests in which to give birth to and raise their offspring. 2001; available at http://www.bio.umontreal.ca/Casgrain/R/index.html) determined if male presence caused a directional shift in the mean time interval and number of peaks in any of the 3 female variables (Fortin and Gurevitch 2001; Legendre and Legendre 1998; Rossi 1996); that is, whether male presence caused a decrease in time, that is, months, between significant changes and an increase in frequency of significant changes in fecal estrogens, fecal progestins, or vulva index (DeMatteo 2004). Female ovarian activity was monitored with radioimmunoassay of fecal estrogen and fecal progestin levels in samples collected daily. Animals.The 8 adult bush dogs (4 females and 4 males; Table 2 Dmoch 2004), used in this study were born in captivity and housed socially, that is, housed with parents or littermates or both, in European zoos before arrival at the Saint Louis Zoo, St. Louis, Missouri (3845N, 9015W). Saint Louis Zoo, 1 Government Drive, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA (KED, UP, CSA), Saint Louis University, Department of Biology, 3507 Laclede Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63103, USA (KED). Asa and Valdespino 1998; Brady 1978; Kleiman 1968; Porton et al. Human interactions should be incorporated into daily routines where appropriate. Tools to help you transition to your new veterinary career, Answers to the questions you're facing as you start out in your professional life, Early-career resources to continue your professional and personal growth, AVMA Center for Veterinary Education Accreditation, Professional policy guidance, open for member input, Creating socially conscious work environments, Self-care and workplace wellbeing for the whole veterinary team, Profitability and finance, marketing, leadership, and team building, Loans, budgets, financial planning, and more, Interprofessional collaboration across animal, human, and environmental health, Disease and pain management, behavior, disaster preparedness, humane endings, and more, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association (JAVMA), American Journal of Veterinary Research (AJVR). A total of 13 sightings of infants, juveniles. Animal Welfare Act, as amended, including the accompanying regulations. Bush dogs are carnivores and they prey mostly on large rodents including acouchis, pacas and agoutis, and also sometimes upon larger animals, such as rheas and capybaras. Bush dogs are monogamous and live in extended family groups. The offspring are produced by one alpha female. These animals mate throughout the year. Play opportunities and enrichment should be provided on a regular basis. and does constitute the use of land for agriculture within the meaning of R.C. Remove or separate the sire (this may mean shifting the sire to an adjacent cage or moving him out to a different area entirely). WebThe relationship continues and today modern zoos and aquariums offer scientists unique opportunities to carry out research on the biology of the animals and plants they care for, In addition, a nonparametric univariate autocorrelation (R-Package [v 4.0.6]Legendre et al. edinburgh university graduation dates 2021; Other non-nest material enrichment can be provided as usual. The current study is investigating whether the bush dog has an obligate pseudopregnancy, is monestrus, and if the male influences the female's reproductive cycle. Based on data from domestic dogs, if the duration of the progesterone elevation is similar in fertile and infertile cycles, then the life spans of the corpora lutea are equal and the female is either pregnant or pseudopregnant (Concannon 1984; Jchle 1987). Animal Husbandry Manuals, Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council, Suite 400, 1220 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036. In the wild, G.Moholi have a polygynous mating system with territory of dominant males overlapping that of several females (Harcourt and Bearder, 1989). In this study we focused on characterizing the reproductive cycle of the female bush dog by considering the pattern of gonadal hormone secretion, the number of estrous cycles per year, presence or absence of a seasonal pattern, and influence of the male's presence on the female reproductive cycle or reproductive characteristics. 15.22), the dhole (Cuon alpinus) (Fig. Watering devices such as drinking tubes and automatic waterers should be examined routinely to ensure their proper operation. Asa and Valdespino 1998; Kleiman 1968; Porton et al.

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